A Scoping Review of the Literature on Embedded Truths and Lies in Investigative Research
Authors
Simina-Alexandra Cacuci1,2 & Laura Visu-Petra1,3*
1 Research in Individual Differences and Legal Psychology Lab (RIDDLE), Department of Psychology, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
2 Department of Psychology, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
3 Department of Social and Human Research, Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Abstract
In investigative interviewing, instances in which a statement is completely deceitful are extremely rare. Rather, most of the time, lies coexist with truthful information, making their detection more difficult. However, the degree of truthfulness is mostly assessed and reported subjectively, and deception research rarely explicitly accounts for it. The current scoping review provides an overview of the emerging state of the literature addressing truths, lies, and their embeddings in investigative contexts. The literature search was conducted on research published up until December 2025 and available in four electronic databases (Web of Science, PsychInfo, Science Direct, and Google Scholar). Among the selected studies (N = 43), a first category explicitly prompted participants to use embedded statements (n = 11). A subset (n = 2) also provided preliminary data on individual differences (e.g., aversive traits) that predispose individuals to mix truthful and deceptive information, as well as the characteristics of their statements (e.g., linguistic properties). In a second category of studies (n = 32), participants spontaneously reported alternating between truthful and deceptive information as a strategy for deception, without being instructed to do so. We outline the importance of moving beyond these indirect assessments and include more nuanced measures of embeddedness, such as asking participants about the source of the truthful or deceptive information they provided. We also highlight the need to investigate potential individual and contextual factors that enable (or hinder) embedded deception, as well as the existing strategies for accurately detecting it. Finally, we discuss the implications of embedded deception for both research and practice.
Keywords: embedded deception, degree of deceit, stay close to the truth strategy, investigative interviewing deception strategies
PAGES:63-103
doi:10.24193/cbb.2026.30.04
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